I.
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:
1.The World
Happiness Report is an annual publication of the United Nations Sustainable
Development Solutions Network. It contains articles, and rankings of
national happiness based on
respondent ratings of their own lives, which the report also correlates with
various life factors. As of March 2020, Finland was ranked the happiest country in the world three
times in a row.
2.In July 2011, the UN General Assembly adopted resolution 65/309 Happiness:
Towards a Holistic Definition of Development inviting member countries
to measure the happiness of their people and to use the data to help guide
public policy. On April 2, 2012, this was followed by the first UN High Level
Meeting called Wellbeing and Happiness: Defining a New Economic
Paradigm, which was chaired by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and Prime Minister Jigme Thinley of Bhutan, a nation that adopted gross national
happiness instead
of gross domestic
product as
their main development indicator.
3.The first World Happiness Report
was released on April 1, 2012 as a foundational text for the UN High
Level Meeting: Well-being and Happiness: Defining a New Economic Paradigm, drawing
international attention.The report outlined the state of world happiness,
causes of happiness and misery, and policy implications highlighted by case
studies. In 2013, the second World Happiness Report was issued, and since then
has been issued on an annual basis with the exception of 2014. The report
primarily uses data from the Gallup World Poll. Each annual report is available to
the public to download on the World Happiness Report website.
4.The rankings of national happiness are based on a Cantril ladder survey. Nationally representative samples of
respondents are asked to think of a ladder, with the best possible life for
them being a 10, and the worst possible life being a 0. They are then asked to
rate their own current lives on that 0 to 10 scale.The report correlates the
results with various life factors.
5.In the reports, experts in fields
including economics, psychology, survey analysis, and national statistics, describe how measurements of well-being can be used effectively to
assess the progress of nations, and other topics. Each report is organized by
chapters that delve deeper into issues relating to happiness, including mental illness, the objective benefits of
happiness, the importance of ethics, policy implications, and links with
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) approach to measuring subjective well-being and other international and
national efforts.
II.GROSS NATIONAL HAPPINESS
6.Gross National Happiness (also known by the
acronym: GNH) is a philosophy that guides the government
of Bhutan. It includes an index which is used to measure the
collective happiness and well-being of a population. Gross National Happiness
is instituted as the goal of the government of Bhutan in the Constitution of
Bhutan,
enacted on 18 July 2008.
7.The term "Gross National
Happiness" was coined in 1979 during an interview by a British journalist
for the Financial Times at Bombay
airport when
the then king of Bhutan, Jigme Singye
Wangchuck,
said "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National
Product",
expressing a concept that had been developed during the 1970s.
the four pillars of
GNH are
3) preservation and
promotion of culture; and
4) good governance.
8. The nine domains
of GNH are psychological well-being, health, time use, education, cultural
diversity and resilience, good governance, community vitality, ecological
diversity and resilience, and living standards
III.Theories
A.Maslow's
hierarchy of needs;Peak experience
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the
levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends
the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs
fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known
as peak experiences, profound moments of love,
understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole,
alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. [This is similar to
the flow concept of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. ]
B.Flow
theory;’’In the zone’’
1.In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as
being in the zone, is the mental state in which a person performing an
activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in
the process of the activity. In essence, flow is characterized by the complete
absorption in what one does, and a resulting transformation in one's sense of
time.
2.Named by Mihály
Csíkszentmihályi [HUNGARIAN.PRONOUNCE:MIHAI CHEEKSANSMIHAYEE]in
1975, the concept has been widely referred to across a variety of fields (and
is particularly well recognized in occupational therapy), though the concept has been
claimed to have existed for thousands of years under other names, notably in
some Eastern thought systems, for example, Daoism and Buddhism.
3.In any given moment, there is a
great deal of information made available to each individual. Psychologists have
found that one's mind can attend to only a certain amount of information at a
time. According to Csikszentmihályi's 2004 TED talk, that number is about " 110 bits of
information per second".That may seem like a lot of information, but simple daily
tasks take quite a lot of information. Just decoding speech takes about 60 bits
of information per second.That is why when having a conversation one cannot
focus as much attention on other things.
4.For the most part (except for basic
bodily feelings like hunger and pain, which are innate), people are able to
decide what they want to focus their attention on. However, when one is in
the flow state, they are completely engrossed with the one task at hand and,
without making the conscious decision to do so, lose awareness of all other
things: time, people, distractions, and even basic bodily needs. According
to Csikszentmihályi, this occurs because all of the attention of the person in
the flow state is on the task at hand; there is no more attention to be
allocated.
5.The flow state has been described
by Csikszentmihályi as the "optimal experience" in that one gets to a
level of high gratification from the experience. Achieving this experience
is considered to be personal and "depends on the ability" of the
individual.One's capacity and desire to overcome challenges in order to achieve
their ultimate goals not only leads to the optimal experience, but also to a
sense of life satisfaction overall.
6.Flow theory postulates three
conditions that have to be met to achieve a flow state:
·
One must
be involved in an activity with a clear set of goals and progress. This
adds direction and structure to the task.
·
The task
at hand must have clear and immediate feedback. This helps the person
negotiate any changing demands and allows them to adjust their performance to
maintain the flow state.
·
One must
have a good balance between the perceived challenges of the
task at hand and their own perceived skills. One must have
confidence in one's ability to complete the task at hand.
7. EIGHT CHANNEL FLOW MODEL /
EXPERIENCE FLUCTUATION MODEL:
Mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level,
according to Csikszentmihalyi's flow model is given above.
In 1987, Massimini, Csíkszentmihályi
and Carli published the eight-channel model of flow shown above. Antonella
Delle Fave, who worked with Fausto Massimini at the University of Milan, now
calls this graph the Experience Fluctuation Model. The Experience
Fluctuation Model depicts the channels of experience that result from different
levels of perceived challenges and perceived skills. This graph illustrates
one further aspect of flow: it is more likely to occur when the activity at hand is a
higher-than-average challenge (above the center point) and the individual has
above-average skills (to the right of the center point). The center
of this graph (where the sectors meet) represents one's average levels of
challenge and skill across all activities an individual performs during their
daily life. The further from the center an experience is, the greater the
intensity of that state of being (whether it is flow or anxiety or boredom or
relaxation).
Several problems of this model have
been discussed in literature. One is that it does not ensure a perceived
balance between challenges and skills which is supposed to be the central
precondition of flow experiences. Individuals with a low average level of
skills and a high average level of challenges (or the other way round) do
not necessarily experience a fit between skills and challenges when both are
above their individual average. In addition, one study found that low challenge
situations which were surpassed by skill were associated with enjoyment,
relaxation, and happiness, which, they claim, is contrary to flow theory.
7A. Schaffer (2013) proposed seven
flow conditions:
·
Knowing
what to do
·
Knowing
how to do it
·
Knowing
how well you are doing
·
Knowing
where to go (if navigation is involved)
·
High
perceived challenges
·
High
perceived skills
·
Freedom
from distractions
8.Challenges
to staying
Some of the challenges to staying in
flow include states of apathy, boredom, and anxiety. Being in a state of apathy
is characterized when challenges are low and one's skill level is low producing
a general lack of interest in the task at hand. Boredom is a slightly different state in that it
occurs when challenges are low, but one's skill level exceeds those challenges
causing one to seek higher challenges. A state of anxiety occurs when challenges are so high that
they exceed one's perceived skill level causing one great distress and
uneasiness. These states in general differ from being in a state of flow, in
that flow occurs when challenges match one's skill level. Consequently,
Csíkszentmihályi has said,
"If challenges are too low, one gets back to flow by increasing them. If
challenges are too great, one can return to the flow state by learning new
skills."
9.The
autotelic personality
Csíkszentmihályi hypothesized that
people with several very specific personality traits may be better able to
achieve flow more often than the average person. These personality traits
include curiosity, persistence, low self-centeredness, and a high rate of
performing activities for intrinsic reasons only. People with most of these
personality traits are said to have an autotelic personality. The term “autotelic” is acquired
from two Greek words, auto, meaning self, and telos meaning
goal. Being Autotelic means having a self-contained activity, one that is
done not with the expectation of some future benefit, but simply to experience
it as the main goal.
At this point, there is not much
research on the autotelic personality, but results of the few studies that
have been conducted suggest that indeed some people are more prone to
experience flow than others. One researcher (Abuhamdeh, 2000) found that people with an autotelic
personality have a greater preference for "high-action-opportunity,
high-skills situations that stimulate them and encourage growth"
compared to those without an autotelic personality. It is in such
high-challenge, high-skills situations that people are most likely to enter the
flow state.
Experimental evidence shows that a
balance between skills of the individual and demands of the task (compared to
boredom and overload) only elicits flow experiences in individuals characterized by an
internal locus of control or a habitual action
orientation. Several
correlational studies found need for achievement to be a personal characteristic
that fosters flow experiences.
10.In the
workplace
10.1 Conditions of flow, defined as a
state in which challenges and skills are equally matched, play an extremely
important role in the workplace. Because flow is associated with achievement,
its development could have concrete implications in increasing workplace
satisfaction and accomplishment. Flow researchers, such as Csikszentmihályi,
believe that certain interventions may be performed to enhance and increase
flow in the workplace, through which people would gain 'intrinsic rewards that encourage
persistence" and provide benefits. In his consultation work,
Csikszentmihályi emphasizes finding activities and environments that are
conducive to flow, and then identifying and developing personal characteristics
to increase experiences of flow. Applying these methods in the workplace, can
improve morale by fostering a sense of greater happiness and accomplishment,
which may be correlated with increased performance. In his review of Mihály
Csikszentmihályi's book "Good Business: Leadership, Flow, and the Making
of Meaning," Coert Visser introduces the ideas presented by
Csikszentmihályi, including "good work" in which one "enjoys
doing your best while at the same time contributing to something beyond
yourself." He then provides tools by which managers and employees can
create an atmosphere that encourages good work. Some consultants suggest that
the experience sampling form (EMS) method be used for individuals and teams in
the workplace in order to identify how time is currently being spent, and where
focus should be redirected to in order to increase flow experiences.
10.2 In order to achieve flow,
Csikszentmihályi lays out the following three conditions:
·
Goals are
clear
·
Feedback
is immediate
·
A balance
exists between opportunity and capacity
Csikszentmihályi argues that with
increased experiences of flow, people experience "growth towards
complexity". People flourish as their achievements grow and with that
comes development of increasing "emotional, cognitive, and social complexity."
Creating a workplace atmosphere that allows for flow and growth,
Csikszentmihályi argues, can increase the happiness and achievement of
employees. An increasingly popular way of promoting greater flow in the
workplace is using the "serious play" facilitation methods. Some
commercial organisations have used the concept of flow in building corporate
branding and identity for example The Floow Limited which created its company
brand from the concept.
10.3 Barriers
There are, however, barriers to
achieving flow in the workplace. In his chapter "Why Flow Doesn't Happen
on the Job," Csikszentmihályi argues the first reason that flow does not
occur is that the goals of one's job are not clear. He explains that while some
tasks at work may fit into a larger, organization plan, the individual worker
may not see where their individual task fits it. Second, limited feedback about
one's work can reduce motivation and leaves the employee unaware of whether or
not they did a good job. When there is little communication of feedback, an
employee may not be assigned tasks that challenge them or seem important, which
could potentially prevent an opportunity for flow.
In the study "Predicting flow at
work: Investigating the activities and job characteristics that predict flow
states at work", Karina Nielsen and Bryan Cleal used a 9-item flow scale
to examine predictors of flow at two levels: activity level (such as
brainstorming, problem solving, and evaluation) and at a more stable level
(such as role clarity, influence, and cognitive demands). They found that
activities such as planning, problem solving, and evaluation predicted
transient flow states, but that more stable job characteristics were not found
to predict flow at work. This study can help us identify which task at work can
be cultivated and emphasized in order to help employees experience flow on the
job. In her article in Positive Psychology News Daily, Kathryn
Britton examines the importance of experiencing flow in the workplace beyond
the individual benefits it creates. She writes, "Flow isn't just valuable
to individuals; it also contributes to organizational goals. For example,
frequent experiences of flow at work lead to higher productivity, innovation,
and employee development (Csikszentmihályi, 1991, 2004). So finding ways to
increase the frequency of flow experiences can be one way for people to work
together to increase the effectiveness of their workplaces."
11.Outcomes
11.1 Positive
experiences
Books by Csikszentmihályi suggest
that enhancing the time spent in flow makes our lives more happy and
successful. Flow experiences are predicted to lead to positive affect as well
as to better performance.For example, delinquent behavior was reduced in adolescents
after two years of enhancing flow through activities.
People who have experienced flow,
describe the following feelings:
1. Completely involved in what we are
doing – focused, concentrated.
2. A sense of ecstasy – of being outside
everyday reality.
3. Great inner clarity – knowing what
needs to be done, and how well we are doing.
4. Knowing that the activity is doable –
that our skills are adequate to the task.
5. A sense of serenity – no worries
about oneself, and a feeling of growing beyond the boundaries of the ego.
6. Timelessness – thoroughly focused on
the present, hours seem to pass by the minute.
However, further empirical evidence
is required to substantiate these preliminary indications, as flow researchers
continue to explore the problem of how to directly investigate causal
consequences of flow experiences using modern scientific instrumentation to
observe the neuro-physiological correlates of the flow state.
11.2 Positive
affect and life satisfaction
Flow is an innately positive
experience; it is known to "produce intense feelings of enjoyment".An experience that is so enjoyable
should lead to positive affect and happiness in the long run. Also, Csikszentmihályi stated that happiness is
derived from personal development and growth – and flow situations permit
the experience of personal development.
Several studies found that flow
experiences and positive affect go hand in hand,and that challenges and skills
above the individual's average foster positive affect.However, the causal
processes underlying those relationships remains unclear at present.
11.3 Performance
and learning
Flow experiences imply a growth
principle. When one is in a flow state, they are working to master the activity
at hand. To maintain that flow state, one must seek increasingly greater
challenges. Attempting these new, difficult challenges stretches one's skills.
One emerges from such a flow experience with a bit of personal growth and great
"feelings of competence and efficacy".By increasing time spent in
flow, intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning also increases.
Flow has a documented correlation
with high performance in the fields of artistic and scientific
creativity,teaching,learning, and sports
Flow has been linked to persistence
and achievement in activities while also helping to lower anxiety during
various activities and raise self-esteem
However, evidence regarding better
performance in flow situations is mixed.[70] For sure, the association between the two is a reciprocal one.
That is, flow experiences may foster better performance but, on the other hand,
good performance makes flow experiences more likely. Results of a longitudinal
study in the academic context indicate that the causal effect of flow on
performance is only of small magnitude and the strong relationship between the
two is driven by an effect of performance on flow.In the long run, flow
experiences in a specific activity may lead to higher performance in that
activity as flow is positively correlated with a higher subsequent motivation
to perform and to perform well.
12.Criticism
|
Csikszentmihályi writes about the
dangers of flow himself:
...enjoyable activities that produce
flow have a potentially negative effect: while they are capable of improving
the quality of existence by creating order in the mind, they can become
addictive, at which point the self becomes captive of a certain kind of order,
and is then unwilling to cope with the ambiguities of life.
Further, he writes:
The flow experience, like everything
else, is not "good" in an absolute sense. It is good only in that it
has the potential to make life more rich, intense, and meaningful; it is good
because it increases the strengths and complexity of the self. But whether the
consequence of any particular instance of flow is good in a larger sense needs
to be discussed and evaluated in terms of more inclusive social criteria
C.Self-determination
theory
1.Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
SDT
is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's
inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It is concerned with
the motivation behind
choices people make without external influence and interference. SDT focuses on
the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and
self-determined.
2.In
the 1970s, research on SDT evolved from studies comparing the intrinsic and extrinsic motives,
and from growing understanding of the dominant role intrinsic motivation played
in an individual's behaviour but it was not until the mid-1980s that
SDT was formally introduced and accepted as a sound empirical theory. Research
applying SDT to different areas in social psychology has
increased considerably since the 2000s.
3.Key
studies that led to emergence of SDT included research on intrinsic motivation.Intrinsic
motivation refers to initiating an activity for its own sake because it is
interesting and satisfying in itself, as opposed to doing an activity to obtain
an external goal (extrinsic motivation). Different types of motivations have
been described based on the degree they have been internalized.
Internalization refers to the active attempt to transform an extrinsic motive
into personally endorsed values and thus assimilate behavioural regulations
that were originally external.
Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan later
expanded on the early work differentiating between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation and proposed three main intrinsic needs involved in
self-determination. According to Deci and Ryan, the three psychological
needs motivate the self to initiate behavior and specify nutriments that are
essential for psychological health and well-being of an individual. These needs
are said to be universal, innate and psychological and include the need
for competence, autonomy,
and relatedness.
4.SDT is centered on the belief that
human nature shows persistent positive features, with people repeatedly showing
effort, agency and commitment in their lives that the theory calls
"inherent growth tendencies". People also have innate psychological
needs that are the basis for self-motivation and personality integration.
5.SDT identifies three innate needs
that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth:
1. Competence
2. Relatedness
3. Autonomy
These needs are seen as universal
necessities that are innate, not learned (instinctive), and seen in humanity
across time, gender and culture.
6.Deci
and Ryan claim that there are three essential elements of the theory:
1. Humans are inherently proactive with
their potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drives and emotions)
2. Humans have an inherent tendency
toward growth development and integrated functioning
3. Optimal development and actions are
inherent in humans but they don't happen automatically
To actualise their inherent potential
they need nurturing from the social environment.
If this happens there are positive
consequences (e.g. well being and growth) but if not, there are negative
consequences. So SDT emphasises humans' natural growth toward positive
motivation; however, this is thwarted if their basic needs are not fulfilled.
Needs
SDT supports three basic
psychological needs that must be satisfied to foster well-being and health.
These needs can be universally applied. However, some may be more salient than
others at certain times and are expressed differently based on time, culture,
or experience.
Competence
Seek to control the outcome and
experience mastery.
Relatedness
Will to interact with, be connected
to, and experience caring for others.
Autonomy
Desire to be causal agents of one's
own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self; however, Deci and
Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of others.
IV.Modernization
and freedom of choice
Ronald Inglehart has traced cross-national
differences in the level of happiness based on data from the World Values Survey He finds that the
extent to which a society allows free choice has a major impact on happiness. When basic needs are satisfied, the degree of
happiness depends on economic and cultural factors that enable free choice in
how people live their lives. Happiness also depends on religion in countries
where free choice is constrained.
ACK:WIKIPAEDIA AND THE VARIOUS AUTHORS.
ACK:WIKIPAEDIA AND THE VARIOUS AUTHORS.
